The FRENCH REVOLUTION had already triggered the War of the First COALITION in 1792, and the nation’s ongoing aggression drove the pope out of the Vatican and inspired the creation of Roman, Helvetic, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. These developments prompted Austria, Britain,Russia, Portugal, Naples, and the Ottoman Empire to form a second coalition against France.
The first hostilities took place in Italy, where French forces overran the Piedmont in November and December 1798. In southern Italy Neapolitan forces, led by the Austrian general Karl Mack von Leiberich (1752-1828),invaded the Roman Republic and took Rome itself on November 29. This prompted a French counterattack,
which drove the Neapolitans out of Rome by December 15. The major battle in this early phase of the war was at Civita Castellana on December 4, in which 10,000 French troops trounced 26,000 Neapolitans. Neapolitan losses were some 2,500 casualties versus 500 killed or wounded on the French side. The major campaigns of the war began in 1799.
ITALIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1799
After his Neapolitan troops mutinied following their defeat, General Mack defected to the French, and Naples soon dropped out of the war, becoming the Parthenopean Republic, a French satellite. However, in June 1799 some 17,000 Neapolitan royalists, in concert with a British fleet under Admiral Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) and with the aid of the Lazzaroni, a Neapolitan mob, ousted the French occupiers from Naples. King Ferdinand (1751 1825) was restored to the Neapolitan throne, and, backed by the British fleet, Neapolitan troops retook Rome on September 29.
In the meantime, in northern Italy a French army of 53,000 moved into position in March 1799 to attack some 52,000 Austrians along the Adige River near Verona. The French objective was to defeat this force before it could be joined by Russian troops marching from the east. A French repulse at Magnano on April 5 bought sufficient time for the arrival of Russian forces, which boosted coalition strength here to 90,000. On April 27 the Russians defeated some 30,000 French troops at Cassano, between Milan and Brescia. On April 28 Milan and Turin fell to the Russians. However, coalition commanders then blundered by dividing their forces to lay siege to remaining French garrisons. Seizing on this mistake, French general Jacques Macdonald (17651840) rushed 35,000 French troops from the south to join other French troops at Genoa. The resulting Battle of Trebbia, from June 1719, resulted in a severe defeat for the French. The Russians went on to another victory at Novi on August 15, and the French retreated across the Apennines.
Most of the Russian army was sent into Switzerland at this point, and some 60,000 Austrians were left to continue fighting against the remaining French in Italy. By the end of the year, the Italian gains Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) had made in the War of the First Coalition had been all but completely wiped out.
RHINE AND SWISS CAMPAIGNS OF 1799
In March French forces under General André Masséna (1758-1817) surprised Austrian troops at Vorarlberg and Grisons and scored a series of hard-won victories. In the meantime, along the Rhine French general Jean-Baptiste Jourdan (1762-1833) led his 40,000-man Army of Mayence against some 80,000 Austrians. Despite some successes, Jourdan was defeated, and command was turned over to Masséna. He made a fighting retreat to Zurich, then on June 7 withdrew to the west from that city. Regrouping in August, he resumed the offensive but was repulsed outside of Zurich during August 1316.
Having apparently dealt with the French, Archduke Charles (1771-1847) pulled more than half his troops out of Switzerland to fight in the Netherlands. Only some 40,000 coalition troops were left in Switzerland under Russian general Alexander Korsakov (1753-1840)-although more Russians were on their way from Italy.
Masséna exploited the present coalition weakness, and on September 25 at the Third Battle of Zurich, he routed Korsakov. In the meantime, General Alexander Vasilievich Suvorov (1729-1800) led 20,000 Russians up from Italy on an epic fighting march through the Alps, but he was relieved of command by order of the czar before he was able to reinforce Korsakov.
NETHERLANDS CAMPAIGN OF 1799
In August 1799 Frederick Augustus, duke of York (1763 1827) landed a force of 27,000 British troops at GroetKeeten, quickly defeating Dutch forces, then joining with Russian troops to create a coalition army of 35,000. This force engaged French and Dutch (Batavian Republic) troops at Bergen on September 16 but suffered a defeat.
Undaunted, York regrouped in October and renewed his offensive, which resulted in the inconclusive Second Battle of Bergen on October 2. York then fought the FrancoDutch army at Kastrikum on the North Sea coast on October 6. A breakdown in communications between the British and Russians contributed to a stunning coalition defeat in which 3,439 of 20,900 troops were lost; Franco-Dutch losses were 1,398 of 17,300 troops engaged.
York withdrew. Despite his setbacks, he had succeeded in neutralizing the Dutch fleet, and with the signing of the Convention of Alkmaar later in the year, the Netherlands was out of the war.
ITALIAN CAMPAIGN OF 1800
The War of the Second Coalition saw the meteoric rise of Napoleon, who overthrew the weak government of the French Directory on November 9, 1799, and became first consul--effectively dictator of the French Republic. Also at this time Czar Paul I (1754-1801) precipitously withdrew Russia from the Second Coalition. This left France in a hopeful position. Although Italy was lost, France held on to all other fronts. Nevertheless, French losses were considerably more than 300,000, and Napoleon understood that he had to end the hemorrhage through decisive counteroffensives in Italy and Germany. His plan was to invade Italy via Switzerland. As Masséna reeled under attack from the Austrians at Genoa, Napoleon led 51,400 troops via the St. Bernard Pass (with detachments also crossing at the St. Gotthard and Simplon Passes) into Italy.
Arriving on the Lombard plain on May 24, Napoleon took Milan and Pavia and then marched to the relief of Masséna at Genoa. However, with his forces greatly reduced,Masséna surrendered Genoa to the Austrian army on June 4, before Napoleon reached him.
In the meantime, the Austrians concentrated 31,500 men, their main force, at Alessandria, bracing for the arrival of Napoleon. He encountered 29,000 Austrians under Michael Melas (17291806) just east of Alessandria, at Marengo, on June 14. The resulting battle was one of Napoleon’s signal victories. The Austrian army was routed, with 9,402 casualties, and Austria sued for peace.
GERMAN CAMPAIGN OF 1800
During the spring French general Jean Moreau (1763-1813) defeated the Austrians at Stockach (May 3),Moskirch (May 5), and Biberach (May 9), driving them into Bavaria. The armistice concluded after Mapplied to Germany as well, but on November 13 hostilities revived there as a 136,000-man Austrian army confronted Moreau’s 119,000-troop Army of the Rhine. After several minor battles the two forces met at the Bavarian town of Hohenlinden on December 3. Because the Austrian forces were committed to the battle in piecemeal fashion, Moreau scored a significant victory and harried the retreating Austrians as they fell back toward Vienna.
Simultaneously, other French forces renewed the battle in Italy,and Austria soon sought terms. The Treaty of Lunéville was concluded on February 9, 1801, ending the major phases of the War of the Second Coalition. Britain continued to fight on its own for another year, however, until the signing of the Treaty of Amiens on March 27, 1802.
France emerged from the war with its many gains intact. However, the nation was severely depleted and war weary. It would be up to Napoleon, initially as first consul,then consul for life, and, finally, emperor, to rally the nation to the remainder of its military destiny.
